Infrastructure Development Projects Research Articles

Community participation in the electricity network development project in Bekasi from ecological citizenship perspective

This research explores the role of community participation in the electricity network construction project in Bekasi Regency, by viewing it through the lens of ecological citizenship. Ecological citizenship provides a framework for understanding the link between community participation and ecological responsibility in the context of energy infrastructure development. This research adopts a qualitative approach with a focus on in-depth understanding of the dynamics of community participation, influencing factors, and its impact on environmental sustainability. It is hoped that the research results will provide in-depth insight into the extent to which community participation can increase the sustainability of electricity network development projects. In addition, this research also aims to identify factors that influence community ecological participation in the project. Policy implications and recommendations will be generated to guide the development of similar infrastructure projects in the future by considering the ecological citizenship perspective.

THE EFFECT OF USING EPOXY RESIN VARIATIONS ON THE VALUE OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, SPLIT STRENGTH, AND ELASTIC MODULUS OF POLYMER MORTARS USING RIVER SAND

The rapid development of physical and infrastructure projects in Indonesia necessitates efficient building materials. Mortar, a standard construction material comprising fine aggregate, water, and cement, has strength, environmental resistance, and flexibility limitations. This study investigates using epoxy resin as a substitute for cement in mortar production. Epoxy resin, a liquid material that hardens into a strong binder, offers potential benefits such as accelerated setting time and increased strength. The research uses river sand as the fine aggregate and varies the epoxy resin content from 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25% of the material volume. Tests will measure compressive strength, split tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity across different epoxy resin compositions. Results from Tanjung Pura University's Materials and Construction Laboratory in Pontianak indicate that adding epoxy resin significantly improves compressive strength (up to 35.92 MPa at 25% resin) and tensile strength (up to 3.82 MPa at 25% resin). However, adding epoxy resin leads to a decreased modulus of elasticity, indicating increased deformability. This research sheds light on epoxy resin's impact on mortar strength and informs potential applications in concrete repair and construction.

IMPROVING THE ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF CLAYEY SOIL USING SILICA FUME AND SISAL FIBER

Building on soft soils continues to be a challenge for civil engineers in the modern world, despite the rapid development of infrastructure projects and advancements in construction technology. They exhibit a large volumetric change upon contact with water, which is the cause of their limited bearing capacity. Various stabilization strategies can be used to handle the soft clay's shear strength issue. In this experiment, sisal fibers and silica fumes were added in different amounts to the clay soil in order to determine the ideal moisture content and strength parameters for reaching the maximum dry density of the soil. By adjusting the amount of sisal fiber for each amount of silica fume, the Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) test has been used to examine the strength of both natural clay and clay modified with silica fume (6%, 12%, 18%) and sisal fibers (0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%) separately, as well as the combination of all the materials. Using a small compaction device, standard proctor test was used to determine the ideal moisture content and maximum dry density. According to the test results, the maximum dry density falls with increasing silica fume content likewise, the maximum dry density increases with increasing sisal fiber content. The addition of 12% silica fume and 2.0% sisal fiber to the clay sample results in a maximum strength when taking the strength parameter into account. Key Words: Compaction test, CBR, UCS, Silica fume, Sisal Fiber

A comprehensive study incorporating structural equation modeling and factor analysis study on the evaluation of performance criteria for infrastructure development projects

Infrastructure development projects are vital for economic growth and societal well-being for every phase of any futuristic growth in the region, city, or country as its backbone in structure development, but their success hinges on effective performance evaluation. The present research employs a thorough methodology that integrates Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and Factor Analysis decision-making tools to examine the interdependencies and comparative significance of diverse performance standards for infrastructure development initiatives. Research has been carried out through numerous parameters on sustainable dimensions in terms of usage as service providers and users. The user’s effect in understanding the endogenous and exogenous factors like traffic flow restrictions, road conditions in the existing road network, AQI (Air Quality Index), urbanization, Los (Level of Service) for roads, travelers characteristics, and interconnected parameters. To identify important dimensions and latent elements that have a substantial impact on the overall success of the project, factor analysis will be used concurrently. The research attempts to identify hidden variables and complex interactions that influence project outcomes through this dual-method approach. Key findings will illustrate the significance for stakeholders to be involved in the project planning process, to take the environment into account, and to ensure the project’s financial viability. Additionally, the study finds both competitive and complimentary correlations between various performance metrics, reinforcing the significance of an extensive assessment strategy.

Experimental analysis of rotating bridge structural responses to existing railway train loads via time-frequency and Hilbert-Huang transform energy spectral analysis.

With the rapid development of national infrastructure projects, there has been a significant increase in intersecting lines in transportation construction. As a result, rotating bridges are increasingly used in engineering projects that span existing railway lines. In order to study the spatial response characteristics and vibration wave transmission mechanisms of the rotating bridge structure under the loading of existing railway trains, field experiments and numerical analyses were conducted. The response characteristics of these bridges were investigated under different types and speeds of adjacent existing lines. A comprehensive methodology has been proposed, integrating the time domain spectrum and the Hilbert-Huang Transform (HHT) energy spectrum for signal processing and vibration analysis. The analysis was carried out using MATLAB 2018a software. This methodology was applied to analyze the test data. The results show that significant resonance phenomenon occurs in the girders of the rotating bridge under the loading of trains on the existing line. The low-frequency component f1 (2-5Hz) is the primary factor contributing to the amplification of the acceleration response in the rotating bridge, while f3 (10-13Hz) plays a secondary role. The frequency distribution characteristics of vibration waves caused by train loads on the existing line have a significant influence on the acceleration response of the rotating bridge's girders. The predominant frequency of vibration waves at each measuring point along the transmission path shows a trend of decreasing → increasing → decreasing. The impact on the rotating bridge structure of vibration waves generated by low-speed freight trains on existing railways is greater. The research findings are of great importance for studying the dynamic response of rotating bridges adjacent to existing railway lines.

From Silk Road to China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC): A Comprehensive Analysis of Economic, Geopolitical, Socio-cultural and Environmental Landscapes of Pakistan

The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is a transformative infrastructure and economic development project that has garnered global attention. This research paper delves into the historical context of the Silk Road and its resurgence through the CPEC, examining the geopolitical, economic, and socio-cultural implications. CPEC's potential is undeniable, offering economic growth, job creation, and regional connectivity. However, it is not without its complexities, including security issues, political opposition, and environmental impact. The paper concludes by emphasizing that addressing these challenges, promoting transparency, and adhering to sustainable practices are essential to unlock CPEC's full potential and contribute to economic prosperity and regional stability. CPEC's journey from the past to the future symbolizes the enduring power of collaboration, offering valuable lessons for international development and connectivity initiatives. Through a multidisciplinary approach, this paper explores the origins, motivations, challenges, and opportunities associated with the CPEC, shedding light on its potential to reshape regional dynamics and global trade.

Prevention of flash floods in the town of Kokrajhar through efficient drainage network design

Flash floods are common in the town of Kokrajhar in north-eastern Indian state of Assam. Many areas in the town of Kokrajhar are submerged in water almost every year due to floods during rainy season. These floods cause heavy damage to roads, agricultural production and halt the progress of major infrastructural development projects. Hence, prevention of floods has become an important concern in the town of Kokrajhar. This study investigated the causes of floods and offered a solution for their elimination. The investigation showed that inadequate and inefficient network of storm drains was the reason for the flash floods. A new drainage network for the town of Kokrajhar has resulted from studying the shortcomings of the existing network of storm drains. The new network is designed in accordance with the recommendations stated in the “Manual on storm water drainage systems” prepared by the Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization in 2019.

Land Price Variability Assessment of a Transport Infrastructure Project in Pabna District, Bangladesh

Transport infrastructure development projects play a vital role in improving accessibility, which has dynamic effects on the regional economy as well as increases property values. This research aims to assess the land price variability in control and catchment areas before and after the Dasuria-to-Dhalarchar railway development project in Pabna district, Bangladesh. A set of independent variables was considered to measure the correlation between development project and land price through a questionnaire survey and focus group discussion. The impact of a railway project on land price was determined by the ordinary least squares method, after which the method was justified through Cook’s distance, P-P plot and scatter plot. The data analysis reveals a strong association between land price and distance to a central business district. The data shows that the land price increased significantly after implementation of the railway project with different intensities, as functional characteristics vary among selected stations.

Infrastructural Development and Neo-Colonialism in Africa: The Case of the Standard Gauge Railway in Kenya

Abstract The paper argues that funding and development of mega projects in Africa is the new way through which neo-colonialism is manifesting itself. Development partners are increasingly using infrastructural development aid as the means to continue exploiting and dominating Africa’s political economy. Using the Chinese funded Standard Gauge Railway in Kenya as a case study, the paper confirms that to some extent infrastructural development projects are replicating colonial structures. The role of foreign funding, multinational corporations, and co-option of elites provides neo-colonial anxieties. However, through sensitivity to Africa’s mounting external debt, and its policy on shared prosperity, China demonstrates that not all its activities on the continent have neo-colonial characteristics. It renegotiates loan repayment, converts loans to grants, and withholds loans to assessed recipient’s abilities to repay. The concept of neo-colonialism provides a framework through which to analyze externally funded development projects in Africa. The study analyzed secondary sources of data.

3D fault model and seismotectonics indicate the potential seismic risk in the Daliang Mountains, southeastern Tibetan Plateau

Areas of active tectonics host many active faults and frequently experience moderate to large earthquakes. The possibility of devastating earthquakes makes the development of major infrastructure projects in these areas risky. World-class large-scale step hydroelectric projects have been built along the Jinsha River, such as the Xiangjiaba, Xiluodu, Baihetan and Wudongde reservoirs in the Daliang Mountains of the southeastern Tibetan Plateau. Using the SKUA-GoCAD modelling platform, we created a thorough 3D model of the active faults. Regional geological information, historical strong earthquake catalogues, small earthquakes with fine displacement and 3D seismic tomography are all integrated in this model. The Mabian–Yanjin fault belt consists of a number of discontinuous faults that are either exposed on the surface or concealed, according to the 3D fault model. Some destructive earthquakes, including two enormous M s 7 and many moderate earthquakes, have occurred along this fault belt. Some pre-existing thrust faults, together with numerous immature faults in specific areas, may have been reactivated and changed into strike-slip faults. The Jinsha River basin's seismic and geological concerns must be carefully considered given the existence of such intricate fault networks and seismic activity. Supplementary material: A video of the 3D fault model is available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.6949201

ANALYSIS OF IMPLEMENTATION DELAYS USING THE EARNED VALUE METHOD (ON THE PURWOSARI - SEKARMOJO ROAD WORKS, PASURUAN DISTRICT)

Along with the very rapid development of infrastructure and construction in Indonesia in the era of globalization, the Indonesian government has carried out various large-scale projects to achieve the increasingly complex expectations of society. This will trigger the growth of the construction industry in Indonesia and become one of the main goals in the framework of national development. An infrastructure development project is an activity carried out with limited time and resources to achieve a specified final result. One of the construction projects currently being developed is Road Works. The Earned Value method can be used to determine cost performance and implementation time during the project and the indicators used for analysis include: BCWP (Budget Cost of Work Performance), BCWS (Budget Cost of Work Schedule), ACWP (Actual Cost of Work Performance), SV (Schedule Variance), CV (Cost Variance), SPI (Schedule Performance Index), CPI (Cost Performance Index), EAC (Estimated At Complete) and ET (Estimated To Complete) and TE (Time Estimate). Conclusions from this research is to determine the estimated costs and time for project completion. In the data analysis in the 9th week, the project schedule performance (CPI) was 1.14, greater than 1, while (SPI) was 0.587, less than 1. The results of the calculation of projected costs for the remaining work (ETC) were IDR. 1,586,686,537.62 and total project costs (EAC) of Rp. 2,509,041,243.08.

Potential Supervision Consultant Contract Disputes Due to Extension of Contractor Time in DKI Jakarta Regional Government Project Based on Fidic White Book

DKI Jakarta is a province in Indonesia that has the most significant regional budget (APBD). This has led to numerous infrastructure development projects funded by the regional budget in Jakarta. Most projects in Jakarta follow a traditional document tendering process, where procurement starts with the engagement of planning consultants to design a project. After the planning documents are completed, contractor and supervision consultant services are procured concurrently. This research aims to identify the factors that result in non-extension and non-payment of supervising consultants and to determine the potential dominant disputes in supervising consultant contracts due to contractor time extension addendums, particularly in projects within the regional government environment of DKI Jakarta. The aim is to minimize the impact of such issues in the future. This research is a combined study with a sequential form. The population of this research consists of building construction projects in the province of DKI Jakarta. The sample for this research is a sports arena construction project. The respondents in this study are the project owners and the supervising consultants associated with the research project. The data will be processed using a rating evaluation method, allowing for the relative comparison of the predetermined variable categories with each other. The provisions should be based on fairness between the contracting parties. The research findings indicate that supervising consultants are entitled to time extensions and additional fees for supervision during the extended period, due to the contractor's extension of the physical implementation time based on technical considerations. The feasibility of the extension proposal is assessed through research, and the results are documented in an addendum to the contract.

Інституційні аспекти розвитку соціального капіталу територіальних громад в Україні

The article aims to analyze the state of the levels and substantiate the directions of institutionalization of the development of social capital of territorial communities. The article analyzes four levels of institutionalization of social capital of territorial communities in Ukraine: group, stakeholder, intercommunity cooperation and international intercommunity cooperation. It is found that the group level of institutionalization is the least developed. At this level, the need to identify leaders and form networks of interaction based on common interests, which would significantly strengthen the potential for community self-sufficiency, remains unaddressed. The level of community stakeholders is poorly engaged, characterized by low activity of public-private partnerships. Significantly better results are observed at the level of intercommunity interaction, the functioning of which is ensured on the regulatory and financial plane through the established system of state funding for community infrastructure development projects, which were largely implemented on the basis of intercommunity cooperation. It has been established that international intercommunity cooperation is also developed. It intensified with the outbreak of full-scale war and was in many cases in-formal and humanitarian in nature. This experience may be useful in the future for the recovery of communities in the postwar period. The paper uses general scientific methods of analysis and synthesis to collect, process and systematize the results of scientific research; abstract-logical and critical analysis — to analyze the levels of institutionalization of social capital of territorial communities; statistical — to collect and systematize data; graphical-to visualize the results of the assessment of international and domestic, intra-Ukrainian, intercommunity cooperation; induction and deduction — to substantiate the main directions of institutionalization of the development of social capital of territorial communities. The main directions of institutionalization of the social capital of territorial communities as a prerequisite for the unification and mobilization of their internal development resources, which is a prerequisite for overcoming the risks caused by the war and the local government reform, are substantiated. The scientific and methodological foundations of the study of social capital at the local level in modern conditions have been improved.

ФОРМИРОВАНИЕ МЕХАНИЗМОВ УСТОЙЧИВОГО РАЗВИТИЯ РЫНКА ТРАНСПОРТНЫХ УСЛУГ В РЕГИОНЕ НА ПРИМЕРЕ РЕСПУБЛИКИ ТАТАРСТАН

The growth of innovative processes at the regional level, including transport infrastructure, forces us to more actively study the mechanisms of its development. Based on the results of the analysis, it becomes obvious that in modern conditions, when the needs of economic development of society are increasingly associated with the growth of transport infrastructure, fundamentally new approaches and tools are needed to ensure its sustainable formation. The object of the study is the elements of the transport infrastructure of the Republic of Tatarstan, which act as one of the driving factors and the main tool for the rapid development of the regional economy. The purpose of the study is to provide a reasoned substantiation of scientific and methodological approaches to modernizing the existing management system of the regional economy of the Republic of Tatarstan by developing recommendations for the development and reformatting of regional transport infrastructure. Research methods: data collection, their systematization and classification, statistical processing, comparative analysis, quantitative assessment of the infrastructural development of the region. The novelty of the research lies in the development of tools that ensure the effective development of transport infrastructure projects in the Republic of Tatarstan.

Quantile-based assessment of energy-CO2 emission nexus in Pakistan.

Nonrenewable energy sources maintain a substantial majority of Pakistan's energy composition, exceeding 70%, posing challenges to achieving sustainability goals for a low-carbon economy. Recognizing this, the study determines the critical thresholds where renewable and nonrenewable energies affect more significantly on CO2 emission over the period from 1972Q1 to 2020Q4. The analysis begins by confirming the stationarity of the data through quantile unit root analysis, followed by an examination of long-term associations using quantile cointegration. For quantile-based impact assessments, we apply quantile regression. To uncover the direction of causality within quantiles, we use a novel approach, quantile causality analysis. Nonrenewable energy sources exhibit a long-term association at disaggregated levels, whereas the same is not true for renewable energy across the quantile distribution. Quantile regression results reveal that renewable energy sources positively impact CO2 emissions, with coal having the highest coefficient, followed by oil and gas, particularly in the upper quantiles, τ = {0.70-0.75}. However, renewable energy sources prove insignificant in decreasing CO2 emissions. Similarly, total energy consumption has a positive influence on CO2 emissions at extremely low quantiles, τ = {0.05-0.30} and high quantiles, τ = {0.65-0.90}, indicating sensitivity to extreme variations. The quantile causality analysis highlights a bidirectional causality relationship among CO2 emissions, total energy consumption, and both renewable and nonrenewable energy consumption across lower and upper quantiles. Policymakers should reallocate funds, provide subsidies, and introduce infrastructure development projects to reduce the burden on nonrenewable energy sources based on this quantile analysis.

Risk Assessment in Sustainable Infrastructure Development Projects: A Tool for Mitigating Cost Overruns

The persistent decline in infrastructure spending, notably within the transportation sector, raises concerns about governments’ capacity to meet the demands of a sustainable growing economy. The incorporation of risk assessment in the analysis and computation of potential cost overruns emerges as an effective and efficient tool, underpinning the economic and financial sustainability of infrastructure expansions. Focusing on the “State Road No. 51 of Alemagna Vittorio Veneto” (SSv-51) variant, this study analyzes and proposes a model to forecast the possible cost overruns of an infrastructure project. The application of the risk assessment tool proposed by the National Anti-Corruption Authority (ANAC) offers valuable insights into potential risks associated with project costs and their valuation. The matrix developed in the current study draws from the ANAC Matrix, which comprises four categories of risk divided into 21 risk types. The selection is based on the project’s characteristics, and a matrix is compiled that forecasts the combination of the probability of risk occurrence and the cost impacts on the project. The proposed risk matrix serves as a practical tool for managing uncertainties and estimating potential cost overruns, estimating ex ante a possible cost increase of 7.53%. This projected increase differs only by 1.34% from the final execution costs, mitigating the unforeseen cost overruns not estimated by the initial project. The proposed risk assessment tool emphasizes the importance of integrating risk management into project planning and execution. The research investigated an applied case utilizing an easily adaptable tool, suitable for potential future implementation, further advancement, and broader testing across various project samples in the future. The study provides a framework to assess and mitigate risks linked to cost overruns. As nations navigate infrastructure development complexities, proactive risk management practices are indispensable for efficient resource management, ensuring the economic and financial sustainability of these complex projects.

Incentive modeling analysis in engineering applications and projects with stochastic duration time

Incentives are quite common to be utilized in engineering applications such as some infrastructure development projects or construction projects. Due to the increasing complexity of construction management and the continuing trend towards outsourcing of component or engineering outsourcing activities, we focus on the issue of incentive design. Time collaboration is one of the main focuses of random project duration time in parallel projects. In this article, we consider a setting where a manufacturer outsources two parallel subtasks to two different suppliers, and the manufacturer is time sensitive. On the premise that the project completion time follows the exponential distribution, some models are established to compare the proposed incentives and we get the comparative analysis of the proposed incentives. This paper puts forward three kinds of time-based incentive mechanisms, namely, deadline incentive mechanism, competition mechanism and mixed incentive mechanism. We do modeling analysis for all incentive mechanisms. We get the optimal work rates determined by suppliers and compare various incentive mechanisms to maximize manufacturers' profits.

Effects of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) on the Economies of China and Pakistan

China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), which is an infrastructure and economic development project initiated by China in Pakistan in 2013. The project aims to connect China's western province of Xinjiang to the Pakistani port of Gwadar through a network of roads, railways, pipelines, and power plants. The CPEC is expected to bring several benefits to both China and Pakistan, including expanding China's economic and geopolitical influence in the region and addressing Pakistan's chronic infrastructure deficits, creating new jobs, and attracting foreign investment. The CPEC can also help to alleviate China's domestic overcapacity issues and reduce its dependence on the South China Sea for its energy imports. Moreover, it can improve Pakistan's regional and global connectivity and enhance its geopolitical importance as a gateway to South Asia and the Middle East. However, the success of the CPEC will depend on various factors, including political stability, security, and effective implementation of the project. Overall, the CPEC represents a win-win scenario for China and Pakistan, as it can provide economic benefits to both countries while promoting regional connectivity and integration.

Logistics performance system and their impact on economic corridors: a developing economy perspective

PurposeThis study aims to investigate the various systems in logistics industry of Pakistan through the lens of the World Bank's logistics performance indicators (LPI) and understand their impact on the China–Pakistan economic corridor (CPEC) that is a vital part of China's belt and road initiative (BRI).Design/methodology/approachIn this study thematic analysis was performed on twenty-three semi-structured interviews with experts in Pakistan's logistics and supply chain sector to gain an in-depth insight into the logistics performance relative to CPEC.FindingsA performance gap exists in the logistics systems in Pakistan, both for hard and soft infrastructure. The significant challenges are the inefficiencies of the government, minimal use of information and computing technology (ICT), and an incapable workforce. It is essential to be cognizant of the ground realities and amendments required in the existing policies and practices in light of the challenges faced and best practices adopted by developed and developing countries with good standing in logistics performance. This study will guide policymakers and practitioners for hard and soft logistics infrastructure improvement, which may benefit economic corridors in general and CPEC in particular.Originality/valueThis study contributes to the existing literature by highlighting the role of ICT in improving both soft and hard logistics infrastructure, which can lead to significant development of economic corridors. The study makes use of a case study of the CPEC to demonstrate the lack of ICT can hamper the growth of an economic corridor despite billions of dollars of investment in the hard infrastructure development projects.

Study on Green Gentrification Mechanisms and Residents’ Satisfaction in Chinese New Urban Areas: A Case Study of the Area Surrounding Julong Lake Park

As China’s urbanization rate continues to rise, new cities are constantly being built, and the popularity of sustainable concepts has led to the development of numerous green infrastructure projects. The increase in green resources has improved the overall urban environment, but this environmental improvement can lead to local stratification and give rise to a phenomenon known as “green gentrification”. Green gentrification can enhance neighborhood vitality but may also lead to negative consequences, such as the displacement of indigenous populations. This study primarily focuses on whether there is residential segregation and social differentiation between indigenous residents and newcomers due to green gentrification and whether they hold different views on green infrastructure. To address these issues and advance the cause of urban fairness and justice, break down neighborhood segregation, and promote community integration, we conducted satisfaction surveys and in-depth personal interviews with indigenous residents and newcomers regarding the Julong Lake facility, their individual circumstances, and the neighborhood relationships. The survey results revealed the following: (1) Both the indigenous residents and the newcomers expressed a relatively high satisfaction with the sports facilities at Julong Lake, but both groups reported a lower satisfaction with the neighborhood relationships. (2) The indigenous residents exhibited a lower satisfaction compared to the newcomers regarding the commercial facilities, social attributes, and green infrastructure surrounding Julong Lake. Additionally, the overall satisfaction with Julong Lake was lower for the indigenous residents compared to the newcomers. We synthesized the survey results and personal interviews with the indigenous residents and the newcomers and arrived at the following conclusions: (1) In the context of urbanization and uneven distribution of green resources in urban areas, the integration of suburban green resources with real estate development has given rise to the new phenomenon of an emerging green middle class, primarily driven by green resources. (2) The new residents exhibited higher satisfaction levels with Julong Lake park attributes and their personal circumstances compared to the long-term residents. This suggests a “green preference” among the new residents, leading to social stratification among the long-term residents driven by cultural aesthetics and value pursuits. The result of this is a stratification and adjacent residential segregation between the long-term residents and the newcomers. (3) The emerging green middle class areas have, on the one hand, promoted the migration of capital, middle-class populations, and green resources to the suburbs, to some extent favoring suburban green development. In conclusion, we hope that this research can help facilitate more equitable allocation of green resources in cities, formulate more optimal green policies, and promote harmonious coexistence and the sharing of the benefits of green development among residents of different income levels in urban areas.